Cannabis and Petro: Echoes of the 20th Century
-Hideo Nagayoshi
The cannabis regulations of the 20th century were heavily influenced by the emergence of the oil industry.
Up until the early 20th century, cannabis was utilized for a variety of applications.
In Japan, cannabis was employed for a diverse range of products, including clothing, ropes for securing boats, tarps for covering loads, and laundry lines. Additionally, it was used in the straps of wooden sandals and the warp threads of tatami mats.
“Geta and tatami?”
While it might seem distant now, in an era before sneakers and hardwood floors, the straps of geta and zori sandals, along with the warp threads of tatami mats, were integral to Japanese life. I’ve found myself in despair more than once when the straps of my geta or zori snapped. Thus, for the Japanese before World War II, hemp was not merely essential; it was woven into the very fabric of their lives.
The woody stems, known as ogara, are processed into chips and blended with soil or plaster to construct walls.
Hemp seeds, known as onomi, can be enjoyed raw. In Japan, they are the slightly larger, round seeds that are commonly included in shichimi togarashi, a popular seven-spice blend.
The oil extracted from hemp seeds, known as hemp seed oil, is also quite beneficial.
In terms of nutrition, hemp seed oil is packed with essential nutrients. Beyond its culinary applications, it has also been widely utilized in various industrial contexts, serving as lamp oil and as a solvent in paints.
Interestingly, both hemp seed oil and peanut oil are capable of powering diesel engines. Rudolf Diesel, the visionary behind this engine, originally designed it to serve as a source of energy for such applications.
Essentially, a significant number of products that we now produce from petroleum could be substituted with biomass materials sourced from hemp. This holds true even in medicine; prior to the development of petrochemical drugs such as aspirin, herbal remedies were widely utilized.
Conversely, this implies that a substantial portion of modern petroleum products can be manufactured from hemp-derived materials.
With the adoption of new technologies, our reach can extend even further. The key issue lies in whether we can adopt a lifestyle that allows us to actualize this potential.
It’s not a complex matter; it’s a time-honored technique. Yet, the frenetic, oil-driven 20th century has already come to an end.
This time, I will present a selection of excerpts from “An Introduction to Cannabis.”
Cannabis and World War II
In 1941, the United States and Japan clashed in a fierce conflict. As the Japanese military invaded mainland China, America, the young leader of the Allied Powers, began to reclaim the Asian nations occupied by Japan one after another.
Just as new economic activities were being established to replace the old colonial economic system, Japan’s invasion occurred.
For the United States, this invasion disrupted their plans to liberate China from opium and turn it into a market for themselves. Moreover, the Japanese Kanto Army was manufacturing opium within China and diverting it to China and neighboring countries to finance their operations.
The U.S. government deployed immense military force to defeat the Japanese army, aiming to reclaim and stabilize the Asian market. This effort culminated in the end of the war in 1945.
In World War II, drug use surged beyond the levels seen in World War I. Various substances, including cocaine, heroin, and oral amphetamines, were widely employed. In Japan, methamphetamines were administered not only to soldiers but also to women working in munitions factories. Many American soldiers encountered marijuana during their time in Asia, adopting smoking habits alongside their use of cocaine and morphine. The United States also expressed alarm over the significant quantities of opium produced by the former Japanese military leaking into the black market.
During the occupation and governance by GHQ (General Headquarters of the Allied Forces), effectively gathering intelligence and eliminating opium became crucial to transforming Japan into a new market for the United States.
The United States mandated that the Japanese government impose strict controls on narcotics within the country. In this framework, the post-war Japanese government meticulously regulated marijuana, treating it as both a psychoactive substance and an industrial crop.
Following the war, Japan experienced recurrent waves of addiction to methamphetamines, commonly referred to as “Hiropon,” alongside rampant misuse of opiates like morphine and heroin. In contrast, the era saw a significant lack of marijuana abuse incidents.
Marijuana Concerns Among American Citizens
In 1938, shortly after the Marijuana Tax Act was implemented, New York City Mayor Franklin H. La Guardia called for the establishment of a subcommittee to conduct cannabis research at the New York Academy of Medicine. This investigative group, known as the “La Guardia Committee,” comprised internists, psychiatrists, pharmacologists, public health officials, heads of correctional and health departments, the director of psychiatry at the health bureau, and police officers. From 1940, the committee undertook a comprehensive four-year study on cannabis, examining not only its medical and pharmacological aspects but also investigating the shifts in family values and ideologies influenced by cannabis use.
What level of danger does cannabis pose, as asserted by Federal Bureau of Narcotics Director Harry Anslinger and others? Additionally, what societal effects arise from the psychoactive properties of cannabis? To prevent a repetition of the mistakes made during Prohibition, New York citizens undertook their own investigation into this substance, which the federal government sought to regulate as a replacement for alcohol.
In 1944, a comprehensive report entitled “The Marijuana Problem in New York City” was released.
The findings of the report, commonly referred to as the “La Guardia Report,” indicated that “while cannabis produces sensations akin to those from other drugs, it does not lead to violent crime.” The report concluded that “there is no evidence of tolerance from continuous use, nor does it lead to addiction to heroin or cocaine, or alter one’s personality.” These results, which countered the catastrophic effects of marijuana depicted in media reports, undoubtedly prompted significant contemplation among state governments across the nation, particularly those with large urban populations. Nevertheless, this was also a time when World War II was at its peak. Given that cannabis has psychoactive effects and can be used for pleasure, regulatory measures were deemed necessary. This viewpoint was shared by U.S. federal officials, including Director Anslinger.
The extensive use of drugs during World War II influenced a stringent punitive drug policy in the United States throughout the late 1940s and into the 1950s. In 1951, Congress passed the “Boggs Act,” which became known as one of the most severe drug laws. This legislation mandated “mandatory minimum sentences,” prohibiting probation or parole for offenders. Under this law, all drug offenses, including those involving marijuana, carried a minimum two-year prison sentence for first-time offenders. Consequently, many minors caught using cannabis also faced actual imprisonment. However, in 1954, the law was revised due to criticisms regarding its disregard for judicial due process and its violation of the separation of powers. Subsequently, in 1956, a new narcotics control law was established that enabled juries to consider the death penalty for individuals who sold drugs to minors.
Examining the post-war context, when the United States was intensely focused on strict drug regulations, it is evident that Japan, during its occupation, likely implemented similarly stringent enforcement measures.
With its victory in World War II, the United States established itself as the unquestioned leader of the world. Consequently, the U.S. pursued the realization of its long-held vision for an ideal world, dating back to the Opium Wars, by controlling narcotics, oil, and military resources while steering the global market economy.
An Inquiry into the Cannabis Control Law and the Oil Industry
A closer look at the history of cannabis prohibition by the U.S. government brings forth a compelling question.
Why did the United States advocate for cannabis to be classified as a regulated substance under the Second Opium Conference Treaty? What motivated the Federal Bureau of Narcotics to pursue cannabis regulation so aggressively? And despite the evidence provided by various federal and public institutions confirming cannabis’s safety, why does it remain categorized and regulated as a dangerous drug alongside substances like heroin?
In the 1990s, author Jack Herer, whose work significantly impacted the cannabis legalization movement by offering a fresh perspective on the history of cannabis regulation in the United States, argued in his book “The Emperor Wears No Clothes” that there was another critical motive behind the cannabis prohibition of the 1930s, backed by a range of literary references.
To establish its leadership in the global economy, the United States sought to monopolize essential industries, with textiles being a primary focus. The production, spinning, and sale of wool, hemp, and cotton, along with the exclusive rights to market these materials, had historically yielded substantial profits, particularly in Britain. The U.S. intended to create and dominate new textiles that did not depend on these traditional raw materials. Among these innovations were synthetic fibers such as nylon, produced from oil.
Between the late 19th century and early 20th century, Western nations were engaged in fierce competition to innovate new textiles. The United Kingdom, France, and Germany pioneered various artificial silk fibers derived from cellulose, a plant-based material, including “rayon.” These patented new materials began to be manufactured not only in Europe but also in Japan, paving the way for the emergence of a new international market. In Japan, the Imperial Artificial Silk Company (now known as Teijin) commenced production of artificial silk threads utilizing the viscose process (a method for producing rayon) in 1918.
The United States recognized the necessity of developing entirely new fibers that differed significantly from existing plant-based materials. To facilitate this, the U.S. government partnered with industrial capitalists to undertake research, which led to DuPont’s successful creation of “nylon,” a synthetic fiber derived from petroleum, in 1936. As the 20th century advanced, America set its sights on achieving economic supremacy through nylon and petroleum. Unlike labor-intensive crops such as hemp and cotton, nylon and other petrochemical products sourced from the abundant oil reserves in Texas symbolized the zenith of American scientific and technological innovation. Furthermore, DuPont pioneered methods to produce paper that had traditionally been made from hemp, using wood pulp instead. In 1914, DuPont invested in General Motors (GM), with Pierre S. DuPont taking the helm as president. Notably, between 1919 and 1931, DuPont also ventured into automobile manufacturing independently of GM.
Thus, the power leaders of early 20th-century America commenced the implementation of their vision for global supremacy through a national framework built around the petrochemical industry, which drove the consumption of synthetic fibers and petroleum energy.
Jack Herer argues that the advancement of the petrochemical fiber industry required the eradication of the competing cannabis industry. The high-quality cellulose derived from hemp is capable of producing a wide range of products akin to those made from petroleum. It was clear that improvements in hemp-based artificial silk threads and celluloid would inevitably result in competition with the petroleum sector for market share. However, unable to outright dismantle its own cannabis industry, the U.S. government sought to exploit the emerging societal backlash against cannabis, which was increasingly viewed as a dangerous drug, in order to regulate and ultimately extinguish the cannabis industry.
Jack Herer’s theory, which posits that America’s oil-centric global strategy was significantly shaped by the involvement of the U.S. government and industrial capitalists in its formative years—leading to the sacrifice of the cannabis industry—remains widely supported among proponents of cannabis today.